Social Mobility in US essays

Social Mobility in US essays Social Mobility in the United States? The focus of this paper will be social mobility in America. My expected findings were that upward social mobility is declining in America, social mobility depends on race, income, mother and father occupation, and ethnicity. The method of research that I used was literature review. I found that 1) upward social mobility is more likely for a white individual than a black individual 2) upward social mobility among the lower classes is decreasing and downward social mobility is increasing 3) upward social mobility does increase the higher the person starts on the social ladder. The United States of America is a country that takes pride in having a thing called equal opportunity for all. America is a place where one can supposedly be successful if he or she works hard. Is this the reality of our society or just a myth? If the idea of equal opportunity were a reality in America, social mobility would be a very common thing. Poverty would only be temporary for the ones who willing to work hard. It wouldnt have to mean that America would be a classless society, just one in which people moved up and down the social ladder. The question of social mobility and the truth to the idea of equal opportunity has been argued for many years in America. We have yet to come to a consensus. If it is true that equal opportunity doesnt exist in American than the idea of the American Dream would be false. Everything that America is about and stands for would have to be questioned and reexamined. Social policies in America have often been shaped by different ideas concerning this issue. Politicians who favor the idea that equal opportunity does exist often enact policies that take away public assistance to impoverished people in America. They believe that since America provides equal opportunity there is no reason to give assistance to poor people. The idea here is t...

Effective Management in International Business Lessons from Four Seasons Expansion to France

Effective Management in International Business Lessons from Four Seasons Expansion to France Introduction Managing in an international business presents unique challenges due to differences in aspects such as culture and legislation among countries. For instance, a manager from a monochronic culture (e.g. North America) may find it challenging to work with employees from a polychronic culture (e.g. France) due to their different perceptions of time.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Effective Management in International Business: Lessons from Four Seasons’ Expansion to France specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The monochronic-oriented manager would, for instance, focus on individual goals, sequentially, while the polychronic-oriented employees would be more comfortable working on multiple goals simultaneously (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003; Nardon Steers 2009). With respect to legislation, differences in legislation, for instance on labor and environment, may imply different operating costs for an en tity. This report analyzes how Four Seasons managed such dynamics when it expanded its services to France, to operate the Four Seasons Hotel George V Paris as reported in the case study by Hallowell, Bowen and Knoop (2003). Four Seasons has had a phenomenal history of operating luxury hotels and resorts as evidenced by its performance from 1996 through 2000. During this period, its revenues increased at a compound rate of 22.6% annually, with the operating margins increasing by approximately 9% (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003, p. 1). The entity’s revenue per room was also higher than the industry average in the U.S. and Europe (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Such success was ensured by its effective management approach and well-informed principles that guided its international growth. Despite this success, its entry into France was challenging; for instance, labor legislation in France lowered working hours for employees, while the French cultural-orientation differed significa ntly from cultures in the other regions in which Four Seasons had existing operations (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). This report assesses how four seasons overcame such challenges. Following the introduction, the report evaluates the appropriateness of management approach used to open the Parisian hotel, the core values demonstrated by various members of Four Seasons, and the impact of management approach on service delivery. The conclusion subsequently identifies the key aspects discussed throughout the report.Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Four Seasons Approach when Opening Parisian Hotel The appropriateness of the management approach used by Four Seasons to open its operations in France was evident from factors such as awareness of French culture, adaptation to such a culture, and the principles that conferred the hotel with the ability to drive change. These aspects are highlighted in subsequent sections. Cultural awareness and adaptation Differences in cultures among countries affects aspects such as negotiations, communication, trust, commitment and cooperation (Hurn 2007; Wendt, Euwema van Emmerik 2009), hence may lead to unfavorable performance for an entity (Mullen Copper 1994; Pillai Williams 2004). Following the realization that cultural distance influences business outcomes, the need for managers to have an awareness of cultures in countries in which they run business activities has necessitated such practices as cultural training to ease adjustment to foreign cultures (Waxin Pannaccio 2005; Causin, Ayoun Moreo 2011). The awareness of Four Seasons management about cultural orientation of the French was primarily evident in the choice of the entry mode. For instance, by recognizing the opportunity that hotel George V presented, Four Seasons mnagement was able to avoid liabilities such as the label of a foreign entity t hat could influence its start-up performance. Such approach prevented an unsuccessful entry into the French market that had been a characteristic of other American entities such as Disney (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Additionally, Four Seasons’ management cultural awareness was evident with their choice of a French interior designer to overcome the challenges imposed by the choice of George V. The George V opportunity presented a challenge of establishing the appropriate balance between maintaining George V’s reputation and rebuilding the premises to meet preferences of contemporary visitors (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). By choosing a designer familiar with the French people’s perception of aspects such as luxury, thus capable of capturing the symbolism attached to the old hotel while creating a new look that would better customer satisfaction, the entity was able to enhance the hotel’s reputation with contemporary visitors while and retain the reput ation that hotel George V held (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Other instances that indicate cultural awareness and adaptation were related to the entity’s adherence to employment legislation existing in France and its hiring of a non-Four Seasons executive chef (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003).Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Effective Management in International Business: Lessons from Four Seasons’ Expansion to France specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Whereas the chef had challenges meeting expectations of contemporary visitors (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003), hiring such an individual with experience in French cuisine helped to reinforce the perspective of Four Seasons being a French palace hotel. Ability to drive change and Impact on Performance Four seasons opening of their Parisian hotel faced various cultural challenges due to differences in culture between North America and France. For instanc e, the managers faced challenges in the process of performance evaluation since the French culture did not favor a direct and explicit approach to discussing employees’ weaknesses, an approach that would be easy to apply in their North American establishments (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Similarly, whereas front-line and middle managers in North America assumed more responsibility and accountability for their roles, such managers in France tended to refer accountability for their decisions and policies to their superiors (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Other conflicting cultural aspects included the differences in perception of time and the French emotional way of doing tasks, which could, on the negative, result into the French temper lashing out (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Such differences implied that whereas Four Seasons management needed to adjust to some aspects of the French culture, in other aspects they would need to implement strategies that would help in cul tural transmission to help the entity meet its principle of providing services based on globally uniform standards. The approach taken by the management in opening the French hotel indicated the ability of Four Seasons to drive change. The entity for instance had established a strategy that enhanced cultural transformation to meet its established standards.Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The entity’s strategy for instance encouraged the development of the right attitude to work by promoting employees who remained committed to the appropriate culture and attitude (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Eventually, such employees would form a critical mass that would form force required to achieve a cultural transformation for the whole entity. To achieve such a cultural-transforming effect in France, Four seasons hired individuals with prior experience working in North America; such individuals helped to demystify negative perception of the North-American aspects of culture that Four seasons intended to introduce at hotel George V (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Similarly, the managers hired had experience in other Four Seasons operations thus could help in training the employees on the expected standards of service (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). The cultural transformation was also aided by the direct involvement of top management as exemplified by the general manag ers (Le Calvez) encouraging the use of first names, an aspect that was rare in the French culture (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). The ability of the Four Seasons management to drive change was evident with changes in quality rating reported following second audit of quality of service at the hotel. In the first audit, various drawbacks to quality service included: staff’s inappropriate attitude, inability to sell the entity’s services and preoccupation with rules and policy to guide their actions (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). During the second audit, such aspects had given way to exemplary service that led to a quality rating comparable to other Four Seasons establishments (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Additionally, such an effect was notable in the high staff satisfaction with their job at Four Seasons as revealed via an Employee Opinion Survey (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Core Values Instilled in Four Seasons Team The successful opening and favorable performan ce of Four Seasons establishment in France resulted from various core values the entity entrenched in its staff. Among these values is the human resources’ â€Å"Golden Rule† that stipulates that staff ought to treat each other as they would wish to be treated (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). The top management demonstrates this principle for instance by inviting employees and their families to an open door event at the hotel for about three times a year (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Additionally, the human resource approach that rewarded employees based only on meritocracy evidenced the application of this rule. Further, such a value was evident in Le Calvez’s approach of encouraging the use of first name to create a more-relaxed environment that ensured effective communication among employees at different levels of the organization’s hierarchy (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Four Seasons favorable performance was also a factor of the entity insisting o n each employee rendering professional service to the clients. Such is evident, for instance, with the stipulation that there should not have been a reason to offer below-par service to the customer (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). For instance, managers in Four Seasons were noted to routinely help in clearing the restaurant tables in passing (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Such an act avoided cases where staff shortage would result into a lower level of service thus lowering customer satisfaction with the entity’s service. The performance of four seasons was further aided by the strong allegiance of employees to the entity. For instance, Four Seasons had a low staff turnover with some employees staying with the firm for a period extending over 25 years (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). The general manager appointed to head the entity’s operations in France had been with Four Seasons for such a lengthy period having been an employee at The Pierre in New York, a hotel oper ated by Four Seasons, for 11 years (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Finally, Four Seasons performance derived from its promotion of diverse cultures but maintaining uniform standards. Such diversity in cultures was, for instance, evident in the observation that the entity’s top managers were comfortable in various international settings (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Through such knowledge, the managers could help employees learn about different cultures thus alleviating the challenges associated with cultural adjustment in foreign operations. Impact of Management Approach on Service Delivery The Four Seasons’ management approach enhances the service delivery within its establishments since it offers the motivation that employees need to remain committed to organizational goals. Such an effect is evident with the improvement in quality rating during the second audit of Four Seasons’ Parisian hotel (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). For instance, allowing middle and front-line managers to become accountable and responsible for decisions at their points of work (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003), empowers them to develop innovative approaches that better business outcomes (Cohen 2004; Burke et al., 2006). The management approach also supported the goals and principles of Four Seasons in a variety of ways. By instituting a cultural transformation, the management for instance sought to establish the attitude and behaviors that would result into a globally uniform service, irrespective of the location of the establishment. Such an approach reflected on Four Seasons’ notion of establishing service based on globally uniform standards, irrespective of the location of the establishment (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Additionally, by basing employee promotion and rewards on meritocracy, the management practiced the human resources’ golden rule which stipulated that each employee was to treat others according to the treatment that one would e xpect from them (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). Four Seasons’ approach to improve communication among employees at various levels of the organization, through such ways as employees’ meetings with the general manager, improved the capacity of the entity to deliver intelligent, anticipatory and enthusiastic service as envisioned in the entity’s principles (Hallowell, Bowen Knoop 2003). For instance, the improved communication helps in identifying potential risks that could lower the service provision at the entity, thus help in initiating timely corrective actions. Conclusion Wide cultural and legislative differences between the home and host country present a barrier to the establishment of effective management practices in the host country. This report evaluates how Four Seasons, a company with roots in North America, was able to manage such challenges in its operations in France. Factors such as management’s cultural awareness, adaptation and capacity to institute change, helped Four Seasons to open and run its operations in France successfully. The management’s cultural awareness was for instance noted in incorporating features of the French culture during the renovations and hiring of French individuals such as a chef to enhance cultural learning. Nevertheless, due to conflicting aspects between the French culture and Four Seasons established norms, the entity’s ability to institute change was the core determinant of success. Such change was established through ways such as hiring individuals with experience working in North America, who would act as the foundation for the transformation other employees’ attitudes. The management experience and skills were also critical in ensuring success of Four Seasons in France. Managerial aspects that enhanced Four Seasons outcomes included empowering middle and front-line managers to make decisions at their place of work, establishing effective communication channels at all levels of the organization’s hierarchy and sharing the commitment to the principles envisaged in the entity’s goals. Through such aspects, the entity’s quality rating had improved to levels comparable with existing establishment by the time the second quality audit was performed. References Burke, CS, Stagl, KC, Klein, C, Goodwin, GF, Salas, E Halpin, SM 2006, ‘What type of leadership behaviors are functional in teams?A meta-analysis’, The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 17, pp. 288-307. Causin, GF, Ayoun, B Moreo, P 2011, ‘Expatriation in the hotel industry: an exploratory study of management skills and cultural training’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, vol. 23, no. 7 Cohen, AR 2004 ‘Building a company of leaders’, Leader to Leader, vol. 34, pp.16-20. Web. Hallowell, R, Bowen, D Knoop, CI 2003, ‘Four Seasons goes to Paris: â€Å"53 properties, 24 countries, 1 philosophy†Ã¢â‚ ¬â„¢, Harvard Business Review, Case 9-803-069. Hurn, BJ 2007, ‘The influence of culture on international business negotiations’, Industrial and Commercial Training, vol. 39, no. 7, pp. 354-360. Mullen, B Copper, C 1994, ‘The relationship between group cohesiveness and performance: An integration’, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 115, no. 2, pp. 210-227. Nardon, L Steers, RM 2009, ‘The culture theory jungle: divergence and convergence in models of national culture’, Cultural Foundations (part 1) in Cambridge handbook of culture, organizations, and work, eds RS Bhagat RM Steers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 3-23. Web. Pillai, R Williams, EA 2004, ‘Transformational leadership, self-efficacy, group cohesiveness, commitment and performance’, Journal of Organization Change, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 144-159. Waxin, MF Panaccio, A 2005, ‘Cross-cultural training to facilitate expatriate adjustment: it works! Personnel Revie w, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 51-67. Wendt, H, Euwema, MC van Emmerick, IJH 2009, ‘Leadership and team cohesiveness across cultures’, The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 358-370.

Analytical report Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analytical report - Term Paper Example Numerous countries in the world do not use the floating exchange rate system due to its fluctuating nature. However, in this situation, it would be best for the small country to use this system since it has more positives than negatives when it comes to growth. The recommendations in favor of this system and some of its disadvantages are discussed below. One of the main advantages of this type of system is the fact that there is an automatic balance of payment adjustments. This means that if there is disequilibrium in the balance of payments, it is normally be corrected by changes in the exchange rate system. This means that if a country has disequilibrium in the balance of payment, then it means that the currency would have to decrease in value. First of all the disequilibrium is brought forth by the fact that the exports outweigh the imports in terms of supply. Therefore, the local currency would be greatly supplied in the foreign market (Bized, 2011, para. 4). This would drive the value of the local currency down and would mean that the imports would be made more expensive and the exports cheaper. This would lead to an automatic increase in demand for the exports which would ultimately result to a balance of payment adjustment. The other main advantage of this type of system is that it frees the internal policy. This means that t he balance of payment is usually rectified when there is disequilibrium by a change in the external price of the local currency. This is as opposed to a fixed exchange rate system in which if there is disequilibrium it means that there is the need to cause a general deflationary. This deflationary could result to the general unemployment of the citizenry. The other main advantage of this type of system is that the country would be free from economic crisis but not completely as money is usually

Play Money Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Play Money - Research Paper Example The company celebrated its 150th anniversary this year. Intel Corporation designs, manufactures, and sells unified digital technology platforms The company offers microprocessors that process system data and controls other devices in the system; and chipsets (Bloomberg, 2014). Alcoa Inc. engages in the manufacture and management of primary aluminum, fabricated aluminum, and alumina. The company operates in four segments: Alumina, Primary Metals, Flat-Rolled Products, and Engineered Products and Solutions. Its products are used in aircraft, automobiles, commercial transportation, packaging, building and construction, oil and gas, defense, consumer electronics, and industrial applications. Bank of America Corporation, over its subsidiaries, offers various banking and financial products and services to single consumers, small-and middle-market businesses, recognized investors, corporations, and governments in the United States and internationally. The company’s Credits segment provides traditional savings accounts, cash market savings accounts, CDs and IRAs, and noninterest-and interest-bearing checking accounts, as well The Dow jones industrial average jumped 195 point or 1.1% to 17390.52 a closing record for the index. The previous record was 17279.74. The Dow section leading the way higher was Gamble, which sported a $1.22 gain (+1.4%) getting the stock to $87.27. U.S Securities ans Exchange Commisions. (2014, June). Financial Navigating in the Current Economy: Ten Things to Consider Before You Make Investing Decisions. Retrieved from U.S Securities and Exchange Commisions:

Importance of Software Quality and methods for assessment Essay

Importance of Software Quality and methods for assessment - Essay Example The above stated definitions are preliminary and important from different perspectives; even if they share the related essence. The clear understanding of customer needs by software products by means of operating requirements. No doubt, the software quality directly affects the operation as well as maintenance of software; however the question of how to impartially and scientifically assess software quality is turning out be a hot spot in field of software engineering. Software quality evaluation requires a lot of dedicated tasks which are really essential to be performed during software life cycle and it also provides a standard for evaluating software quality that is generally applied and maintained throughout software development procedures and practices. During the entire process of software quality assurances to get the utmost quality and performance we have to persistently found software quality throughout techniques and measures of software development. In the present situatio n, we are required to disclose current status of the software, provide effective and best possible means for buyer, developer and evaluator and thereafter foresee follow-up development trend of software quality (Bawane & Srikrishna, 2008; Aimin & Wenxiang, 2009; Mohanty, 1979).In this section I will highlight some of the main views of the software quality assurance from the perspectives of different industries. So in this analysis we will be determining some of the main characteristics of software quality assurance from the viewpoint of several stakeholders.

Flowers Essay Example for Free

Flowers Essay Flower is abeautiful things for me.I like it so much.Ilike to give all person that.I love them flowers to exepres my love and recpect for them.We can see the flower in many places such us:garden house and farms.It have amany beautiful colours like:red,light pink and dark pink,yellow and white.for me I like the red flower becous it meems the love.Know I wont to give my teacher this flower to exepres my love and recpect for her. Information about flowers Municipal offline Avatar municipal flower of great beauty with red and purple and other colors and the rose nicknamed Queen of flowers because the Avatar has a beautiful shape and the smell of a smart stay long and seeing the flowers before sunset to extend the life of Rose and reap a portion is a short section by scissors so as not to dissection tree offline and then placed Rose immersing the leg in the water in the deep water for about an hour. Lotus flower Is the flower was taken by the old army informed him, and lotus leaf ground and agricultural leg upright has many branches and flowers bright yellow color, topped with some red spots, and the lotus plant rises from 15 cm to 30 cm and a lotus flower in a coloring substance analgesic anti-spasm and has an uncanny ability to cure infections , and lotus flowers flowers thin can not afford transport from one place to another and is also picked to cause her death quickly and lotus in Egyptian mythology reflect the childhood of innocent flying from the heart of the flower white, flower lotus grows with sunlight and grows in the ponds of static water in the marshes wide in the Fayoum and the the surface of quiet water in the foot hills of the desert has been called the Pharaohs on the lotus flower beautiful or Nangr because it is the most perfect flowers and the lotus flower with a blue lady perfume and brightest of the white lotus. Violet Trees of violet are Kaloashab small but bushes Accessories leaves in the form of tablets have a long neck and flowers in the axes of shrubs, each flower grows in the branch and its reach is long and the color of flowers white or purple, violet leaves heart-shaped and the flowers her legs long and is yellow or blue and Tguettaf flowers violet in the early hours of the morning because the smell stronger in the early morning and violet flowers, but do not live long after the cut out of the water as quickly appended to their necks He shall be placed in water immediately or transfer to another place, wrapped in paper to protect it during transport. Narcissus Its leaves are similar to drive five or six in number, and a page of paper upright and culminates plant Zahrtan large color sulfur, and flowers of narcissus Municipal harvested early in the morning and the smell pungent and stronger than those harvested in the middle of the day for they shall be then, a few essential oils that evaporate with rising temperature of the atmosphere. Camellia Girls dendritic sprouting flowers in winter and spring and flowers Alcamili pink or red or white, a plant beautiful lives in the shadow does not need a small amount of sunlight, but needs to light a lot, and can be grown Camellia seeds or planting can also cut his mind by the buds of the leg A plants and planting from September to February each year. Willow Large tree grows on the shores of canals and drains, rising to about about 25 meters and its subsidiaries medium extroversion and upright form of green oil topped with fluffy white, leaves paint the parties, the length of paper 12 cm and view 3 cm, we get the tree serrated edge, with some yellow flowers and most of the flowers of the white a tree for decoration and magnificent beauty. Six-Hassan Plant a beautiful name of scientific Belladonna It grows in the countrys warm and temperate, a grass not a tree land with a height of 600 to 4150 cm, roots thick and leg strong upright and leaves oval are really to Zjh but greasy, and the flowers six-Hassan Ali bell-shaped red beautiful shape and its fruits village green and then turns to a red flower and then turn to black after maturity is not eaten because they are toxic to produce mature seeds. Henna flowers Henna shrub agricultural roots and red legs and branches fluffy white bark and leaves are opposite and the neck of a small hump in the form of a bright green leaves and flowers are used for dyeing the hair and strengthen it to deal with it. Chickpea flower Herbal plant farm on his leg Qraaa cruel and libra above of from 30 to 50 cm papers vehicle Oriqath oval serrated flowers central focal color tends to red and white but the fruits of chickpeas is centuries in the form of an egg tip hooked and this fruit is a nice taste and health benefits. Sunflowers Flower plant sunflower plant long-average leg, but hollow, this flower such as the disk of the sun bloom with the first light of the sun and pay attention to the bright and still move with the movement of the sun until it reaches the west and the sunflower plant agricultural measures about two meters leg rigid upright and Haah weak and leaves a large heart-shaped and the plant Sunflower prepared by the Indian sacred and loved the Egyptian street. Cactus flower Is the blossom of the yellow color and large size is the plant flesh Akats material Alklorvil green rises from 2 to 5 meters and racks Yearbook oval shape and a length of from 30 to 40 cm and width of from 20 to 50 cm promises green with forks long characterized by flowers that the materials for the salivary and sugar and acid, citric acid and apple and fruit is very nutritious. Flowers lilies Iris white plant rises from 60 to 100 cm flowers large Vuahh the blue and central color of the yellow-and-leaf iris articulated shape and leg strong and there are some flowers for color and white topped illustrate red Rakech scarlet side is yellow from 5 to 8 cm. Papyrus flowers Papyrus plant long family Alkhimih and grows in swamps in the Delta and its roots are deepening in the mud and his legs stretch up on the section of a three-form flowers, papyrus is in the form of a tent and with a dense thicket of dense they resemble the sun and used in the manufacture of paper papyrus for writing was called the paper Royal, a evergreen and flowers bouquets were made of papyrus in the temples of God and drawing closer to the plant is still located in the southern Bahr el Ghazal River Nile. Flowers of the pomegranate Pomegranate trees with a height of 3 to 5 meters in his leg smooth and branches upright and the leaves are opposite and in the form of shaft blossom pomegranate five petals and the color purple and out of the fruits of spherical large the teeth cup him peel the heart and start a green color and then begin to flush with maturity within the fruit seeds of a small claims Frend Frend surrounding this core fluid and the birthplace of the pomegranate tree in Persia and the Pharaohs.

Microbial Clean-up of POPs in a Subsurface Environment

Microbial Clean-up of POPs in a Subsurface Environment Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) consist of a wide range of contaminants with each group presenting different challenges and having different processes for bioremediation. Although Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) are not a POP under the Stockholm Convention, they are widespread in the environment and can be toxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic. Specific PAHs are seldom found in isolation and interactions can increase the aforementioned properties (15). This paper describes a new product for the clean-up of PAHs in a subsurface environment. A new product for the clean-up of PAHs will be described including factors that could enhance or limit its potential, based on technical and literature reviews. The engineering and legal aspects of applying the product will also be examined. 3.1 Metabolic Characteristic of PAH Degradation Product       The majority of research into PAH degradation has focused on aerobic rather than anaerobic processes so this product has been designed using findings from aerobic studies (15). Constituents of this product are shown in Figure 1. Indigenous bacteria may have evolved more efficient pathways and enzymes to degrade PAHs compared to commonly cultivated microorganisms (15). If these are present only the biostimulation part of the product may be required to feed the bacteria or change groundwater chemistry to create favourable growth conditions. If the existing biomass is not viable or doesnt contain specific genes or species capable of degrading PAHs, the bacteria consortia part of the product can be introduced as well. In addition, more bacterial species are capable of degrading low molecular weight (LMW) PAHs compared to high molecular weight (HMW) PAHs and if testing shows the indigenous bacteria only possess strains able to degrade LWM PAHs the bacteria consortia part of the product should be used. A consortia can be more effective than one particular strain due to metabolic diversity and co-operative metabolic activates for example where products produced by one strain are further degraded by other strains possessing suitable catabolic pathways (8) A consortia cannot be formed by simply mixing any bacterial strains know to degrade PAHs as they may not be compatible or form co-operative metabolic activities (17). Also pre-exposure of bacteria to hydrocarbons has be shown to increase the degradation rate (11). Therefore the most effective remediation may be achieved by developing a consortia from inoculants isolated from an environment impacted by long term contamination. The consortium in this product consists of 4 strains: Pseudomonas (MTS-1, KC3), Cupriavidus (MTS-7) and Bacillus (KC5) and was formed by enriching and isolating bacteria from a manufactured gas plant site (17). The strains were then identified through molecular cloning and gene sequencing, mixed and the most effective PAH degrading consortia selected. The consortia has been shown to degrade PAHs in soil slurry by 80-90% for LMW PAHs and 60-70% for HMW PAHs compared to natural attenuation rates of 55% and 40% for LMW and HMW PAHs respectively. Figure 2 shows the upper pathway for the aerobic degradation of PAHs. HMW PAHs are degraded first followed by LMW PAHs and carbon dioxide and water formed as by-products (5). Dioxygenases are intracellular so PAHs must be taken in by cells for degradation to take place. Degradation rates depend on the mass transfer rates of contaminants from the solid or bound phase to the aqueous phase where they are bioavailable (8).   This can be increased by increasing the surface area between the substrate and the aqueous phase through the addition of surfactants (8). Concentrations of PAHs in the aqueous phase are proportional to the amount of surfactant available (8,11). For increased efficiency the biostimulation part of this product contains surfactants that have been shown to solubilize benzo[a]pyrene from the soil by 1000 times more than its water solubility plus all strains in the consortia are biosurfactant producers (13) (17). 3.2 Genetic Modification Degradation rates could be increased by molecular cloning of genes responsible for PAH degradation, into highly replicating plasmids in bacteria (8). Genetic engineering could also be used to introduce or modify membrane proteins to facilitate transportation of hydrophobic POPs into the cellular interiors of microbes or cells could be modified to enable catabolic reactions on their surface (2). Alternatively, protein engineering could enhanced degradative capabilities by modifying catabolic enzymes so one strain can catabolize several POPs or so catabolic enzymes can degrade dead end products (2). Genetic engineering is expensive, can be controversial, there may be difficulties in getting genetically engineered microbes to survive in the environment and gene transfer among microbes in the environment may lead to the emergence of new species (2) (4). It was therefore decided not to use genetic engineering due to cost and it would unlikely be acceptable to a regulator. (alex) 4.1 Factors That Could Enhance or Limit Potential of Product 4.1.1 Properties of Pollutant The longer an organic substance remains in contact with soil the more the bioavailability decreases due to the formation of bound residues. Bioavailability is the ability to be transported across a cell membrane for intercellular metabolism as with this product or the availability for extracellular metabolism. PAHs can also get trapped in coal tar or black carbon particles reducing their bioavailability () The bioavailability of POPs is low due to their high octanol/water partition coefficient (Kow) meaning they are relatively hydrophobic whereas microbes and their catalytic enzymes are optimised for hydrophilic surroundings.   LMW 2-3 ring PAHs such as anthracene with lower Kow values, high water solubility and volatility are more mobile and therefore more rapidly degradable compared to HMW 4-7 ring PAHs such as Benzol[g,h,i]perylene which may be mutagenic and carcinogenic (4)(8). 4.1.2 Properties of Contaminated Environment The concentrations of soil organic matter and inorganic material effects the bioavailability of pollutants and reduces the survival of exogenous microorganisms (3). Where there is high organic and clay content PAHs are protected by sorption to organic matter and diffusion into micropores, thus limiting their degradation (4). Temperature will impact the product as the rate of organic pollutant desorption from soil to aqueous phase increases as temp increases. For PAHs the soil water partition-coefficient decreases by 20-30% for every 10oc rise in temperature between 5 and 45oc (11). In addition with increased temperature dissolved oxygen decreases and the ability of the bacteria to cope with temperature ranges may affect the product performance (4)(15). Lack of soil nutrients, bioavailability of carbon sources, presence of additional pollutants have been shown to inhibit biodegradation by affecting the physiology and ecology of microorganisms (17) (4). However, as shown in Table 1, this product contains nutrients and a carbon source for biostimulation. Heavy metal contamination is often found with PAHs but this product is designed with metal tolerant bacterial strains (17). The bacteria in this product are most efficient at degrading PAHs near pH7 so pH adjusters are also included. Other properties of the contaminated environment that could affect the products potential include adverse effects in soil microcosm due to competition between indigenous and exogenous microorganisms and interactions of the inoculated bacteria with protozoa and bacteriophages (3). Low soil water content will result in decreased substrate availability and may have physiological effects on microorganisms due to cell dehydration (3). 4.2 Engineering Challenges for Field Application of Product Figure 2 shows the stages in the field application of the product which needs to be tailored to site specific conditions. The product will be sold in the form a soluble injection compound that will be injected upstream of groundwater flow through injection wells, extracted downstream and recirculated. Table 2 shows some of the engineering challenges in the application of the product. 4.3 Legal Framework for Field Application of Product Local Authorities are responsible for determining if land or waters are contaminated and are the lead regulator except for Special Sites where SEPA is responsible. As shown in table XXX contamination can be addressed through the contaminated land regime under Part 2A of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 or though planning controls. Whenever possible remediation should be carried out by agreements with the enforcing authority rather than by means of a Remediation Notice. If a notice is served it will specify the action required and timescales. A mobile plant licence may be required for the treatment of contaminated land and may be regarded as an authorisation for the treatment of groundwater under The Water Environment (Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2011 (9). When SEPA issue such a license a site specific working plan must be agreed with them. Soil Guideline Values (SGVs) represent trigger levels for concentrations of pollutants in soils that may pose a risk to human health. They dont represent the threshold at which harm occurs or unacceptable levels in terms of Part 2A of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 but they may be a starting point for the risk assessment process for determining if the land is contaminated or remediation has been successful (6).   There are no statutory standards for soil contamination as site specific risk assessment taking into account the sources, pathways and receptors affecting a particular site (7). The first part of the product is the biostimulation part containing elements to promote bacterial growth, a source of carbon, pH adjusters, an oxygen release compound and surfactants to increase the bioavailability of PAHs. If the indigenous bacteria are not capable of degrading PAHs present the bioaugmentation part should also be used. The bacterial strains in the consortia are biosurfactant producers and are capable of degrading HMW PAHs. The legal framework requires a site specific approach to the use of the product. Also the field application needs to be tailored to site specific conditions with environmental monitoring before, during and after application.